REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The purpose of this chapter was to
review related literatures having relevance to the present study. There was a
serious dearth of work, especially on analysis of production practices, growth
performance of the species planted, socio-economic impact on beneficiaries and
constraint faced by the beneficiaries during implementation of Roadside Social
Forestry Programme. So, directly related literature were not readily available
for this study. However, the researcher tried to his best to collect required
information.
2.1
Concept of
Social Forestry
2.1.1 Definition of Social Forestry
Social forestry
is a techno-socioeconomic process of land use towards socio-economic
amelioration of rural poor and sustainable development of degraded and marginal
lands with their environmental rehabilitation. Peoples participation in all
stages of Social forestry project implementation (planning, designing,
monitoring, and evaluation) is imperative as it can only ensure the success of
this kind of project. Worldwide development practitioners recognized Social
Forestry as an important component of rural development approaches. It is very
much realized, for many developing countries facing land scarcity with high
population pressure, to undertake Social Forestry as a strategy for socio
economic enlistment and ecological improvement (Ahmed, 1991).
In Bangladesh, the term is used rather
flexibly as an umbrella term for such public, private and community initiative
which aim at ensuring “active participation by the rural people in planning,
implementation and benefit- sharing of tree growing schemes”(Task Force, 1987).
Social Forestry is viewed within the
broader framework of rural development in Bangladesh. It primarily
includes afforestation programmes in
marginal and degraded forest lands and community forest lands, village woodlots,
farm forestry, strip plantations alongside railways, highways and embankments,
‘community plantation’ on public lands with joint management and
benefit-sharing arrangement between the government and local communities,
homestead forestry and varied other manifestation of agro-forestry (Alim,1988
and Khan, 1998).
2.1.2 Characteristics of Social Forestry
Social Forestry
has following basic characteristics
i)
It must demonstrably help the rural poor.
ii)
It should enjoy strong governmental support
iii)
It should be carried out with the active participation of
the local people including the poor, landless farmers, unemployed youth women
and children.
iv)
It should be developed based more on socio-economic
rather than on purely technical consideration.
v)
It should give the local people a share in the authority
to design and sustain projects that will meet their demands. This means
willingness on the part of the government to share power with the participant
beneficiaries in protecting, managing, expanding, enriching and developing
tree/forest resources.
2.1.3 Objectives of Social Forestry
The principal emphasis of Social
Forestry is on wider participation of local communities in the protection and
regeneration of forest resources. Social Forestry primarily refers to those
public initiatives, which enable local people to participate in the planning,
implementation, and management of local forests for their own benefits. Some
common objectives of Social Forestry Programmes stated by several authors (Task
force, 1987; alim, 1988; Arnold et al, 1988 and Oakley, 1990) include the
following.
i)
To empower local communities by involving them in the
planning, implementation and benefit – sharing of forestry activities in order
to cater for local needs (especially the subsistence needs of fuel wood,
fodder, timber and pools).
ii)
To maximize land productivity through the planting of
fuel wood and timber species in any land specially marginal land like those
along feeder roads, highways, railway lines, and canal embankments.
iii)
To enhance ecological stability through the “greening” of
open ideal and otherwise unproductive land areas such as those along roads and
highways, railway lines, canal embankments, bank of ponds, premises of public
buildings and other fallow areas.
iv)
To promote self – reliance and social equity among local
people.
v)
To augment their income, productivity, socio-economic
status and living standard.
vi)
To check environmental degradation, ensure conservation
of soil and water resources.
vii)
To foster the development of local cooperative
institutions.
viii) To optimize the
land use of forest land by ensuring multiple uses i.e., agro forestry practice.
ix)
To restore and develop the degraded and denuded forests
especially plain land Sal forests.
2.2
Social Forestry
Activities in Bangladesh
This section is based on the literature
and information drawn from the publication titled “AN OVERVIEW OF SOCIAL
FORESTRY OF BANGLADESH by Dr. Niaz Ahmed Khan, Junaid Kabir Choudhury, Khawja,
shamsul Huda and M. Iklil Mondol.
2.2.1
Forestry Sector Project (FSP) (1998-2004)
The FSP is
currently the largest public sector SF intervention in the country. Its stated
aims included: conservation of forests in selected protected areas, increased
production of wood, institutionalization of forest resource management through
local community participation and institutional capacity building and policy
reform. The strip and institutional plantations showed good progress. ADB
Mission found that the overall achievements are fairly good. Considerable
progress has been achieved in initiating reform of institutions and policies.
The government has amended the Forest Act in the year 2000 and undertaken
multi-stakeholder consultations to finalize the draft rules and regulation to
institutionalize Social Forestry. However, some indigenous and ethnic minority
associations and environmental advocacy groups have raised concern about the
efficacy of the regulations and the mode and inclusiveness of the consultative
meetings (Roy and Halim, 2000) A considerable number (460) of NGOs have been
involved as partners of Forest Department(FD) in implementing the project
activities.
2.2.2
Community Forestry Project (CFP) (1981-1988)
The project
represents one of the earliest attempts towards introducing a participatory
approach to forest resource generation and management in the country. Its
primary objectives included benefiting the rural poor by producing fuel wood
for domestic uses, fruits, construction timber and fodder, catalyzing community
awareness of the values of tree planting and developing a permanent
institutional capacity within the FD to undertake social forestry throughout
the country. The project area encompassed seven northwestern districts of
Rangpur, Dinajpur, Pabna, Rajshahi, Bogra, Kustia and Jessore. The physical
targets, such as establishment of strip plantations, fuel wood plantations,
agro-forestry, training, institutional support, were mostly achieved. Limited
headway was made in achieving the social goals.
2.2.3 Upazila Afforestation and Nursery Development
Project (UANDP) (1989-1996)
This project was basically a sequel to the
Community Forestry Project and aimed to increase the production of biomass fuel
and enhance the institutional capacity of FD to implement a self sustaining
national wide Social Forestry Programme.
The project covered 61 out of 64 districts,
i.e. 85% of the total land area of Bangladesh. The project was judged to be
partially successful by various assessment reports. The level and content of
farmer’s participation in the project activities varied greatly. The expected
participant’s contribution was mainly to protect the plantations. Generally,
farmers actively participated in protecting trees in their agro-forestry plots.
In the woodlots, the intensity of participant’s protection involvement varied
with the degree of fuel scarcity and the value they attached to the provision
of tree by products (e.g. leaves and twigs). In some instances, the projects
preference and perception of benefits and use of products were in conformity
with farmer’s views and field realities.
2.2.4 Forest
Resources Management Project (FRMP) (1992-2001)
Among other
activities, this project contained a component tiled participatory Forestry
Development (PFD) which represented the major SF activities within the project.
The PFD component aimed to establish 850 ha of plantation through participatory
arrangement with the local people within the Chittagong and Cox’s Bazar Forest
Divisions. The physical target of establishing 850 ha of agro-forestry
plantations in Chittagong and Cox’s Bazar was achieved involving especially the
encroached forestlands. Some 610 farmers were included in the project which
extended over the districts Chittagong and Cox’s Bazar (Under the
administrative purview of Chittagong South, Chittagong North, Cox’s Bazar south
and Cox’s Bazar North Forest Divisions) Out of these 610 farmers, 200
participants were allotted 2 ha of land each and 410 participants have been
allotted 1 ha of land each. Prior to the project most of these lands, although
designated as government forestlands, were encroached and denuded. Although the
participants were allotted plots, a good number of the participants did not
receive formal benefit sharing agreement. The formation of participants’ groups
seemed more of an attempt to fulfill a procedural requirement of the project than
and exercise towards developing genuine collective activities.
2.2.5 Sundarban
Biodiversity Conservation Project (SBCP) (1999-2006)
The development
objectives of the project include development of a sustainable management and
biodiversity conservation for the Sundarban Reserve Forest (SRF) resources, and
reduction of poverty of 3.5 m people living in the impact zone. The project is
rated satisfactory. Activities towards achieving the physical targets are
underway. The organizational and institutional structures, such as the
Sundarban Management Unit (SMU), Sundarban State ownership Commission and
Stakeholder Advisory Council, have been in place, although the SMU remains
understaffed.
Since the late
2002, a number of ADB Review Missions have expressed concerns over the
project’s lack of significant progress especially in such areas as development
of participatory environment engaging the local people and other stakeholders
and effective financial management. Ultimately in September 2003, the ADB
suspended the loan for the project on account of serious implementation delays
and lack of proper financial management of the project. In order to consider
lifting of the suspension, the Bank has however advised the FD to proceed with
such activities as the reformulation of the project plans through a
participatory and consultative process, and reconcile project accounts in
compliance with ADB guidelines.
2.2.6 Coastal
Greenbelt Project (CGP) (1995-2002)
The key
development goals of this project were to protect and improve the coastal
environment by increasing tree cover and to reduce poverty by creating
supplementary income opportunities for the poor. The progress of implementation
and of achieving the development objectives is rated satisfactory and partially
satisfactory, respectively. The progress toward physical targets was generally
satisfactory. Some 8934 km of strip plantations and 665 ha of foreshore
plantations were established and about 143936 participants and more than 100
NGOs were engaged. 12.56 m seedlings were distributed free of cost for planting
in homesteads and institutions. Participants received direct benefits from
intercropping vegetables and extracting fuel wood, fodder and fruits. Some
10000 participants received payment for planting activities in the year 2000.
The project helped in generating employment for more than 3.5 m Man/days.
Initially few women were involved in the project activities, however, female
participations has increased in the last two years.
2.3 Social
Forestry Activities of Selected NGOs
2.3.1 The
Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC)
The Bangladesh
Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) is perhaps the largest NGO currently
operating in Bangladesh. It started its journey in 1972. Today it operates in
61924 villages of 480 thanas in 64 districts and serves roughly 70 m people.
BRAC is the host of some income generating Programmes such as poultry,
livestock agriculture, Social Forestry, fisheries, sericulture, horticulture,
agro-forestry, handicrafts, small enterprise etc. It also has large commercial
enterprises like Arong shops, printing press and dairy and food products, which
bring revenue to BRAC to meets its operational costs.
BRAC started SF
Programme in 1977, confined mainly to homestead plantation. Under this Programme,
BRAC distributed seedlings among its beneficiaries to plant around their
homesteads drawn mainly from the government nurseries. Subsequently, with the
increase in demand, it started raising its own nurseries to supply the
seedlings. BRAC, however scaled up its SF Programme since 1988 and collaborated
with the government in different projects. The components of SF Programme are:
1.
Nursery development
2.
Thana Afforestation and Forestry Sector Project
3.
Coastal afforestation.
4.
Agro-forestry and block plantation and
5.
Floriculture.
BRAC started its
nursery Programme with two objectives:
1. Generate income and employment
opportunities for poor rural women and
2. Ensure supply
of sufficient number of good quality seedlings to meet the local demand.
BRAC encourages
its VO (Village organization) members, who have 7-10 decimal of own of leased
land to setup nurseries. Those expressing interest are inducted in the
Programme. BRAC provides intensive training for 6 days, and provides credit to
set up the nurseries. Apart from village nurseries owned and operated by
beneficiaries, BRAC also has its own nurseries sizes of which vary between 1
and 39 acres, currently, there are 7762 nurseries owned by VO members, which
have produced and sold 383806746 seedlings so far. Besides, BRAC has
established 24 nurseries and has distributed 3624136 seedlings. The Thana
Afforestation and Nursery Development Project was a collaborative project with
the FD where BRAC was involved in plantation within its working areas. BRAC has
planted trees along road strips, embankments, railway slopes and Union Parishad
roads involving its VO members. Usually, for each kilometer of road 4-6 women
members were selected to plant tree of different species supplied by the FD and
protect them. A benefit sharing agreement was signed among the FD, the
participants and the land owning agency. According to such agreement, the
participants were assigned 65% of the share of the final harvest. BRAC
initiated its coastal afforestation Programme after the cyclone of 1992 that
lashed the coastal areas of Chittagong and Cox’s Bazar causing colossal damage
to life and property.
2.3.2 The
Caritas-Bangladesh
The
Caritas-Bangladesh, a country-based Programme of Caritas International, is one
of the largest NGOs operating in Bangladesh today. It started its operation in
1971. It now operates in greater districts of Barisal, Chittagong, Dhaka,
Dinajpur, Khulna, Mymensingh and Rajshahi.
Caritas strives for rural poverty
alleviation, human development and employment creation through implementing an
integrated Programme in 11 sectors with 46 different projects covering some
1.94 m people. The SF Programme is a part of the agriculture and environment
Programme of Caritas.
The Social Forestry
Programme was launched in 1986 covering 24 Thanas under seven regional offices
of Barisal, Chittagong, Dinajpur, Dhaka, Khulna, Mymensingh and Rajshahi.
Initially, Caritas concentrated on homestead plantation; some plantations were
also done on road strips and pond-banks. Subsequently, Caritas expanded the
Programme covering more areas and involving more participants. It undertook
extensive motivational campaign to educate people on the importance of tree
plantation both in terms of ecological as well as personal benefit aspects
through distribution of different information, education and communication
materials; provided training to develop knowledge and skills of the
participants and supplied inputs to interested participants to set up nurseries
to meet the emerging seedling needs. Under the homestead afforstation
component, Caritas has encouraged the participants to purchase seedlings from
locally raised nurseries. So far, 247668 participating households have planted
trees in their homesteads. Species planted include both fruit and timber trees.
Roadside plantation is another component of the Social Forestry Programme.
Under this Programme, Caritas has encouraged and assisted its participants to
plant trees, under a benefit sharing arrangement, on road strips, pond banks
and other public places. So far, the caritas participants have afforested 210
km of road strips, mostly feeder roads belonging to the Union Parishad with
193951 saplings. Participants involved in roadside afforestration also get
benefit from intercropping different crops with the trees. Such crops include
tomato, arhar, eggplant, papaya, chalkumra and ginger.
2.3.3 The
Village and Farm Forestry Project (VFFP):
The Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC) launched
the Village and Farm Forestry Project (VFFP) in 1987 in selected districts of
northwestern Bangladesh with a view to address the acute shortages of fuel,
fodder and wood that affected the poor adversely. An action research project,
trees were planted in croplands in collaboration with poor and marginal farmers
through the involvement of local NGOs who operated as project partners
responsible for the implementation and management of the project.
In 1991, VFFP launched
a Programme to support the development of nurseries with the objective of
ensuring of sufficient quantities of seedlings/saplings of wide varieties of
species of assured quality to meet the existing demand. The initiative was
taken to give impetus to the private entrepreneurs and develop a network of
professional seedlings/saplings producers who could by its own right promote
local development, generate income and operate on a self sustainable basis. The
nursery owners developed in the process were termed by VFFP as Core Farmers
(CFs). VFFP, with the help of its partner NGOs, motivated the CFs to form their
own association to address their common needs and problems and to raise funds,
which they could draw from to meet their emergency needs. Thus, the core
farmers were mobilized to form Core Farmers Associations (CFAs). Each partner
NGOs was made responsible for each CFA consisting of anywhere between 90 and
130 nursery owners supported by that NGO and coming from a widely scattered
area sometimes covering more than one district.
2.3.4 The
Rangpur Dinajpur Rural Service (RDRS)
RDRS, funded by
the Lutheran World Service, started its operation in 1972 in the northern part
of Bangladesh, specifically in Rangpur and Dinajpur districts. Initially their
activities were confined to emergency relief and rehabilitation for the war
affected refugees, but later, RDRS shifted its activities to rural development
for the landless and marginal farmers.
Forestry
activities of RDRS were initiated in 1977. During the first decade the
activities were confined to planting trees in homestead sides of major roads,
public places and school compounds through the organized group members.
One of the major
components of RDRS SF Programme apart from homestead plantation is roadside
plantation. RDRS initiated roadside plantation on an experimental basis on 36
miles of roads with 80000 trees planted and protected by women caretakers.
Based on the success, the Programme was expanded through a tripartite agreement
with the Zilla Parisad (district council), the Roads and Highway Department and
the FD.
In 1988, RDRS
received support from the World Food Programme (WFP) to expand tree coverage in
its working areas. Care taking by poor women was one of the main components of
this Programme. Between 1988 and 1997, over 2.5 m trees were planted under the
WFP-RDRS tree plantation Programme.
In 1995, RDRS
received funds from Interchurch Organization for Development Cooperation
(ICCO), the co-financing agency of the Government of the Netherlands to
undertake roadside tree plantation in its working areas. The project covered 28
Thanas of Kurigram, Lalmanirhat, Thakurgoan, Panchagrh and Dinajpur districts.
By the end of the project period in the year 2000, 1.3 m trees were planted as
against the project target of 1 m trees. In addition to that 220000 mulberry
trees and 12 acres of block areas were planted and maintained. The length of
roads covered 1273.5 km, and the survival rate was reported to be 80%
The legal
foundation of the tree plantation Programme was the tripartite deed between the
land owning agency (Union Parisad), the local federation and RDRS. The federation
received a share of 65% with Union Parisad receiving 20% and RDRS 15%. The deed
was signed by the head of the local government and witnessed by the Thana
Nirbahi Officer (TNO).
2.3.5 PROSHIKA and its Social Forestry Programme
2.3.5.1 PORSHIKA at a glance
It has been more
than two decades since PROSHIKA, now one of the largest NGOs in Bangladesh,
took its first step. Although the PROSHIKA development process started in a few
villages of Dhaka and Comilla districts in 1975, the organization formally emerged
in October, 1976. The name of PRSHIKA is an acronym of three Bangla words,
which stands for training education and action.
PROSHIKA is now
its phase 5 (five years plan) stepping into the new millennium. A constant
analysis of the magnitude of poverty and its trends the strategies effective
for its reduction and eventual elimination and their meticulous implementation
has brought PROSHIKA where it is today. The central ethos, however all the
while remained the same human development and empowerment of the poor who
gradually stand tall to achieve freedom from poverty by themselves. Empowerment
means that the poor are united and organized are aware of the real causes of
their material resources increase income and employment, develop capacities to
cope with natural disasters become functionally literate, take better care of
their health are engage in environment protection and regeneration, get elected
in local government bodies and community institutions, and give better access
to public and common property resources. Since, its inception, PROSHIKA has
been a pioneer and practitioner of this holistic strategy of empowerment and
has made a significant contribution to the reduction of poverty already
achieved in Bangladesh.
PROSHIKA
envisages a society which is economically productive and equitable socially
just environmentally sound and genuinely democratic.
PROSHIKA’s
mission is to conduct an extensive, intensive and participatory process of
sustainable development through empowerment of the poor.
PROSHIKA’s
objectives are:
i)
Structural poverty alleviation.
ii)
Environmental protection and regeneration.
iii)
Improvement women’s status.
iv)
Increasing people’s capacity to gain and exercise
democratic and human right.
The PROSHIKA,
well known both nationally and internationally as one of the largest NGOs in
Bangladesh, was established in 1976. In order to enable the poor to participate
in the development process, PROSHIKA organizes them in groups and provides them
with the necessary orientation, education and training to enhance their consciousness, technical and
management skills and competence. Apart from organizing the poor in groups,
PROSHIKA also urge them to mobilize their own resources through savings and
provided credit to undertake income generation activity to bring and improvement in the quality of their
living. The role of PROSHIKA throughout this process remains as a catalyst.
Currently PROSHIKA is operating in 22,917 villages of 252 thanas in 57
districts. It has also Programmes in 2028 urban slums in 319 urban wards. So
far PROSHIKA has organized a total of 2082 million groups out of which 1.7 are
female and the rest male groups. Total numbers of households and population
served by PROSHIKA are 2.17 and 11.9 million, respectively. The total amount of
credit disbursed to the members for income generation so far is Taka 2061.30
crore (Proshika 2002).
2.3.5.2 Formation
of federation a people’s organization through PROSHIKA
Since small
groups are incapable of exhibiting any significant force against the onslaught
of the local power structure individually PROSHIKA motivates the groups to
federate into large structures at the village union and thana levels. Each
federated structure has a coordination committee elected democratically and is
responsible for its management and administration. The committee at the village
levels is formed with the representatives from the primary groups organized
within the village; the union coordination committee consists of
representatives from each village coordination committee and finally the
coordination committee at the thana level is formed with representatives from
the union coordination committees. So far PROSHIKA has formed 11757 village
1050 union and 101 thana federation. It has also formed 1300 slum federations.
2.3.5.3 Areas of PROSHIKA activity
The major
working areas of Proshika are:
1.
People’s Organization Building (POB)
2.
Human Development Training (HTD) Programme.
3.
Practical Skill Development Training (PSDT)
Programme.
4.
People’s Cultural Programme (PCP).
5.
Development Support Communication Programme (DSCP).
6.
Universal Education Progarmme (UEP).
7.
Material Development Cell (MDC).
8.
Employment and Income Generating (EIP) Activities.
9.
Urban Poor Development Progaramme (UPDP).
10.
Institute for Development Policy Analysis and Advocacy
(IDPAA).
11.
Integrated Multisectoral Women’s Development Programme
(MWDP).
12.
Environment Protection and Regeneration.
13.
Housing Programme (HP).
14.
Health Infrastructure Building Programme (HIBP).
15.
Health Education Programme (HEP).
16.
Small Economic Enterprise Development (SEED) Programme.
17.
Information and Documentation Resources Cell (IDRC).
18.
Impact Monitoring and Evaluation Cell ((IMEC).
19.
Computer in Development Programme (CDP).
20.
Assistance to Other Organization (AORG).
21.
Disaster Management Programme (DMP).
2.3.5.4 Social Forestry Programme of PROSHIKA
The social
forestry Programme of PROSHIKA is a systematic intervention effort to enhance
afforestation in the country and already proved that the poor are the best
managers and protector of the forest resources if they are allowed usufruct
right on these resources. With this understanding, PROSHIKA has involved its
group members in social forestry activities and provides them with motivation
credit and technical support, which are contributed significantly to their self
sufficiency. Up to June 2006 about 107 million seedlings have been planted with
the involvement of organized groups of PROSHIKA under social Forestry Programme
(Proshika 2006).
2.3.5.5 Background of the Social Forestry Programme
of PROSHIKA
PROSHIKA
launched its SF Programme in 1985 in Sirajgonj involving members of its
organized groups. It negotiated lease of 22.5 km of Upazila Parishad roads for
the participants for a period of 5 years and assisted them to plant fast
growing Babla trees inter-cropping with Arhar (Fattah 2003). PROSHIKA provided
training to participants on nursery management and plantation skills with the
assistance of the Forest Department and distributed seeds and other inputs
after the completion of the training. Initially the inputs were given free of
cost, but subsequently were distributed on interest bearing loans. The outcomes
of the experiment were considered satisfactory and the participants obtained
significant return. PROSHIKA also encouraged the participants to plant trees in
homesteads and set up their own nurseries at the village level. It provided
them with necessary technical training (Khan et al. 2004)
2.3.5.6 Characteristics of selecting the
beneficiaries in Social Forestry project of PROSHIKA
All the beneficiaries for the Social
Forestry are selected bearing the following criteria in mind of the local ADC
officials:
– Their
involvement with PROSHIKA in any other project before.
– Vicinity of
the neighborhood of the interested ones.
– Their
landlessness.
– Their abject
poverty.
– Whether they
are female-headed households.
– Their interest
in this issue
– Women are
always specially encouraged and prioritized.
2.3.5.7
Components of PROSHIKA Social Forestry Programme
The components of the Programme along with the achievement are presented
in the table below (Table-A)
2.3.5.7.1 Homestead
Plantation
The components
of the Social Forestry Programme along with the achievement are presented in
the table below. Under homestead plantation, PROSHIKA encourage all its members
to plant trees in their homestead and provides necessary training on plantation
112876 groups planted nearly 13.78 m seedlings.
2.3.5.7.2 Institutional
Plantation
PROSHIKA also
planted trees in educational and government institutions that exhibit
willingness to do the plantation and cover a portion of the cost (20%).
Institutions making request must have space for planting at least 500 trees.
PROSHIKA supports caretakers, drawn mainly from the groups, to nurture and
protection the trees for two years. So far PROSHIKA has planted 472378 trees in
552 institutions.
2.3.5.7.3 Strip
and block plantation
Strip plantation is the largest
component of SF Programme. Under this Programme PROSHIKA planted trees along
the strips of feeder roads and highways, slopes of embankments and railway
tracks on pond and canal banks and other categories of land belonging to the
public and private individuals. PROSHIKA usually arranges lease of land for the
member groups from the land owners/land owing agencies for a period of 15-20
years under a benefit sharing arrangement. A deed is normally signed among the
members, land owing agency and PROSHIKA before plantation and the benefit from
the final harvest is shared among the three parties at the rate of 60% 20% and 20%
respectively. So far, PROSHIKA has planted over 7.37 million seedlings on 14671
of strips involving 6729 groups.
PROSHIKA
undertakes block plantation on private as well as public lands that are not
suitable for agriculture involving its group members. It arranges the land from
the landowner on a long term lease under a harvest sharing arrangement. A
tripartite land use and benefits sharing agreement is drawn where the owner
gets 40% members 40% and PROSHIKA 20%. Intercrops, which are grown, vary from region
to region; most common crops grown are turmeric, ginger, pineapple, groundnut
etc.
Apart from block
plantation of private land PROSHIKA group members were involved in block
plantation on forestland in form of agro-forestry and woodlots since 1989-90 under
the Thana Afforestation and Nursery Development project in seven Thanas of the
Tangail, Mymensingh and Gazipur districts. The FD allocated 1.01 ha of
encroached forestland for each participant and provided seedlings for
plantation seeds for agric-crop and other required inputs. Under the tripartite
agreement the members got 50% agro forestry and 40% of the final harvest in
woodlot. So far PROSHIKA has planted nearly 2.3 m seedlings in 16790 ha of
forestland involving 7754 groups.
2.3.5.7.4 Protection
of Sal forest
Protection of
Sal forest features one of the notable interventions undertaken by PROSHIKA
group members. The first initiative was undertaken at Bangshinager village in Mirzapur Thana where 2 male and 2
female group members decided to protect the sal forest that was getting rapidly
denuded due to indiscriminate felling by groups of influential people. They
protected approximately 40 acres of degraded forestland around their homesteads
on a voluntary basis. Subsequently, a large number of groups in Mirzapur,
Kaliakoir, Sakhipur and Sreepur had undertaken similar initiatives. Currently,
1406 groups of Proshika have been engaged in protecting 2841 ha of Sal forest
areas.
2.3.5.7.5 Nursery
Development
PRPSHIKA has
given particular emphasis on developing nurseries involving its members. It
selects members having at least .08 ha of own or leased land and interested in
setting up nurseries in consultation with the group to which they belongs.
Those elected are provided with technical training and loan to meet the initial
costs. Since the inception of the programme, 2948 tree nurseries, established
by the group members have produced roughly 47 m seedling which apart from
selling among fellow members are sold to community people yielding significant
income for the family.
Table A Summary of Social Forestry Programme of PROSHIKA
|
Programmes |
No. |
No. |
No. |
No. |
No. |
Area |
||||
|
Prod |
planted |
Homestead |
112876 |
|
112876 |
|
|
1378 |
|
|
|
Intuitional |
|
552 |
|
|
|
472378 |
|
|
||
|
Strip |
6729 |
|
|
|
|
7346 |
|
14671 |
||
|
Block |
1227 |
|
|
|
|
2266 |
941 |
|
||
|
Block |
7754 |
|
|
|
|
4664 8603 |
167 |
|
||
|
Protection |
|
|
|
|
|
|
28 |
|
||
|
Nursery |
|
|
|
2948 |
4734 |
|
|
|
||
2.4 Impacts of Social Forestry
A survey was conducted on Community
Forestry Project (CFP) of Nepal about achievement of the project from 1981 to
2000. The achievements were about 1.1 million ha of forest land handed over to
nearly 14,000 forest users groups (FUGs); 1.2 million households were involved;
and 25 percent of the national forest are now managed by more than 35 percent
of the total population. A rapid appraisal of forest product utilizer, income
and patterns of expenditure of 1,788 FUGSs from 12 hill and Terai districts in
Nepal was carried out in 2000 and extrapolated to all FUGs in the country.
The result of the above study
indicated that the total annual cash income from sale of forest products from
community forest Programme was 747 million rupees (more than US$ 10 million.
This amounted to almost 42 percent of the annual budget of the ministry of
Forest and soil conservation. At the present time, 100 percent of these
benefits are going to the FUGs. About 36 percent of the income from the
community forest Programme was spent by the FUGs on the community development
activities, such as building of school, roads and drinking water facilities
(Anonymous, 2002).
A cast study was conducted on Joint
Forest Management (JFM) in Haryana. The success of the Joint Forest management
in Harayana, India was manifested in the improved of socio-economic development
of the people and evaluation of an institutional process of cooperation between
the Haryana Forest Development (HFD) and the Hill Resources Management Society
(HRMS). The maximum average yield of bhabbar grass was 850 kg/ha under six
years of community protection compared to the yield of 300 to 360 kg/ha in the
unprotected areas. The total number of trees/ha increased from a minimum of 700
in unprotected forest to a maximum of 3,960j in 10 years of protection. Leasing
out of forest areas to HRMS for extraction of bhabbar grass contributed to the
development of village infrastructure and also economic betterment of the local
communities, especially the Banjara community. Leasing out of forest areas to
HRMS for extraction of fodder grass helped the pastoral community to re-stock
their livestock with more productive breed (Anonymous, 2001)
Lai and Javis (1991) reported that
roadside tree plantation introduced by an NGO, Proshika Mannobik Unnayan Kendra
while working with 2,20,000 landless
agricultural laborer and marginal farmers found positive impact on increasing
employments and income generating activities. The returns from crops and
thinning of A. nilotica have made
enterprise profitable.
Ruangapanit (1985) reported that the
participation of the beneficiaries or the people in the local community was
extremely important, as if they did not participate in the planning and
implementation, the community forestry project would not satisfy individual and
local need, if they did not receive any benefits, the projects would have no
meaning for them. He further added, social forestry was an important tool for
meeting the basic needs of the rural people for fuel wood, fodder and
agricultural production.
Helen (1989) while assessing the
perceived benefits from “Community Forestry Programme” in the refugee camp
around Luuq, Somalia, reported that 89 percent of those surveyed said that the
tree plantation had helped them among those benefits training and education
were important to 54 percent, monetary gained was to 48 percent and benefits
from amenity trees were to 26 percent. A significant numbers mentioned the
environmental benefits of the enclosures.
Chowdhury (1985) showed that there
were remarkable positive trend of change in socio-economic dimension as income
generating activities, decision making and environmental protection in three
Social Forestry Projects as Sukhmajri, Dasholigram Swaraja Mandal(DGSM) and the
government Social Forestry Project.
Jammur (1989) undertook a study on the
assessment environmental quality of a tribal region using Social Forestry
Project in India. The finding indicated that the Social Forestry was the
conspicuous stabilizing factor as regards to environmental quality, since it
generates the potential for employment food and particularly all other
requirements while having minimum deterioration impact.
Bharathi (1985) reported that the
community forestry project of Srilanka commenced on 1982 acted as a catalyst by
creating community awareness and permanent institutional capacity. On the other
hand, Olofson (1985) reported that significant changes took place in income
generation activities in the Tagalog pioneer farmers in some small parcels of
flat and sloping sites in Jala-jala peninsula in Philippines.
Thapa (1994) conducted a study
entitled; “Community analysis of selected regular and foreign funded integrated
social forestry project in region-4, Philippines” It showed positive
environmental impact i.e. more crop diversification, soil fertility improvement
and soil maintenance practices.
Purandari and Das (1986) reported that
general plantation condition were satisfactory largely due to the enthusiasm of
due to the enthusiasm of officials, although the forest Programme was in its in
infancy in Maharashtra “Social Forestry Project” initiated in 1978. In another
study Crippa (1984) concluded that the “Social Forestry Project” had turned out
to be a commercial in nature and although it had been economically beneficial
to its adopters but i.e. had a negative effect on the environment, reducing
soil fertility on plantation lands and causing a loss of national vegetation in
India Shekhar and Sahoo (1995) while
carrying out a study of 14 landless farmers under the Forest Farming for Rural
Poor (FFRP-AGRO) “Social Forestry Programme” in Orissa (funded by SIDA)
reported that all the beneficiaries were able to sustain their families for 6-8
months each year, instead of the 4-5 months of bare survival achieved under
shifting cultivation.
A study was conducted in Pred Nai
Vilage in eastern Thailand. Villagers were attempting to renovate a mangrove
management planning process, which was being facilitated by RECOFTC project
staff. So far the plan included regulation to prevent (reduce) over harvesting
of mangrove crabs which were a major source of income for poorer villagers.
Management included mangrove protection and regeneration as well as planting of
mangrove species. Community members recognized that numbers depend on adequate
supplies of food from mangrove tree species. There was a clear linkage between
forest conversation activities and economic benefits. At Pred Nai, the benefits
in terms of poverty alleviation were undiputed (Anonymous, 2000)
Orr (1985) in describing
“Community Forestry Project of Somalia”, concluded that the income earned from
the ownership, harvest and sale of trees acted as a incentive for people to
continue managing their wood lots properly.
Rahman and Khan (1994) investigated
some major economic and technical aspects of lemon (Citrus medica) farming in
Betagi Social Forestry Project, Chittagong. They found that calculated values
of the internal rate of return (IRR) and benefit-cost (B/C) ratio were 63
percent and 4, respectively. On the other hand, Quddus et,el,
(1992) conducted
a study in Betagi and Pamora Community Forestry Project, Chittagong. The
socio-economic finding of their study indicated the socio-economic status of
the settlers was up lifted significantly.
Mecardo (1987) while conducting an
evaluation of community Forestry project lunched in 1982 by the Forest
Department of Bangladesh, jointly funded by ADB and UNDP, implemented in the 23
northern districts of the country. The psycho-socio-economic evaluation of the
project indicated that majority of 780 randomly selected beneficiaries
interviewed believed it to be a success, only percent considered it as failure.
Akther et al. (1989) conducted a
survey in Jessore area of Bangladesh and observed that the farmers grew trees
as saving insurance against risk of crop failure and low yield as well as
assets of their children.
Senet et al. (1986) reported that
general plantation conditions were satisfactory due to largely to the
enthusiasm of officials, although the forest program was in its in infancy in
Maharashtra project initiated in 1978.
Davis (1985) reported that indigenous
group of the tropical lowlands could preserve and protect their natural resources
while simultaneously developing self sustaining and self managed local
economies. He further added that with limited capital and adequate technical
assistance, local indigenous communities can commercially develop their
forestry resources, manage them on a sustained field basis and contributes to
national goal of social progress and integrated rural development.
Methodology
Methodology is
very important for conducting any type of research because research methodology
is the foundation of a research work. This chapter deals with the methodology
used for the survey and other relevant data collection for the research work.
The word ‘survey’ refers to a method of study in which an overall picture of a
given universe is obtained by systemic collection of all available data on the
subject (Efferson, 1963). For this work, a good number of sample beneficiaries
were interviewed with a view to collected representative and reliable
information. The methods involved in this study are cited below:
3.1 Study site
The study was carried out at Dhamrai
Area Development Center (ADC) of PROSHIKA situated in Dhaka district.
.
3.2
Selection of
study site
Selection of a
study site is one of the most important parts of any socio-economic research.
After a short visit to the project area and discussion with the PROSHIKA
personnel and local beneficiaries, 10 roads from three unions namely Shuapur,
Nangutia and Nannar were randomly selected. Among other things, the main
criteria behind the selection of 10 roads were as follows.
i)
The area has good plantation under Roadside Social
Forestry Programme.
ii)
Plantation of this road side programme has been harvested
and share money already distributed among the beneficiaries.
iii)
No systematic study on this aspect had yet been
conducted.
iv)
The area has easy accessibility to collect required
information.
v)
Re-filling has been made.
3.3
Description of
the study site
3.3.1 Area Development Center( ADC)
Proshika has been working across the
country through Area Development Center. Presently, Proshika has 196 Area
Development Centers (ADCs) throughout Bangladesh. Out of 196 ADCs, 93 ADCs have
Roadside Social Forestry Programme.
3.3.2 Dhamrai Upazila (ADC)
Dhamrai Upazila
is one of the well established ADC of Proshika under Dhaka district with an
area of 307.4 sq.km is bounded by Mirzapur and Kaliakoir Upazila on the north,
Singair Upazila on the west. Main rivers passed through Dhamrai are Bangshi,
Dhaleswari and Gazikhali (Banglapedia Voll-9, 2003). Dhamrai (ADC) is located
about 50 km north-west from Dhaka city and the Dhaka-Aricha high way has passed
through it. In Dhamrai (ADC), there are 16 unions, 308 Mouzas and 408 villages.
The study was conducted in three unions namely Shuapur, Nangutia and Nannar of
Dhamrai (ADC). A total number of 81 groups were involved in stripe plantation
in Social Forestry programme in this ADC. Total length of the roadside
plantation was 98 km. Roadside plantation of 18 km have been harvested, where
17 number of groups were involved. The profit sharing systems among different
stakeholders were participants 60%, PROSHIKA 20% and landowner 20%. Tree
species planted in this ADC mainly were Mahogony, Sissoo, Akashmony, Raintree,
Shilkori etc. Rotations of the plantation were 20 years but most of the cases
harvesting took place within 15 years.
Fig 3.1 Map of
Dhamri Upazila (study area).
3.3.3 Topography
and soil of the study area
Dhamrai Upazila is located in the
Agro-ecological region 8 and 28 i.e. Young Brahmaputra and Jamuna Floodplains,
and Madhupur tract. Maximum area of the study site (95 percent) was under Young
Brahmaputra and Jamuna Floodplains, and rest (5 percent) area belongs to
Madhupur tract. The soil of this area is mainly developed over unconsolidated
alluvial sediments. These are two kinds: compact Madhupur clay and recent and
sub-recent mixed flood plain sediments deposited by the Ganges, the Brahmaputra
and the Meghna. Silt loams and silty clay loams occupied the greater part of
the region. Organic matter content in the cultivated layer was around one. Soil
PH of the study site ranged from 5.0 to 7.5.
3.3.4 Climate
The study site
is located in the tropical belt and enjoys fairly equitable tropical monsoon
climate. The temperature is almost uniform throughout the year. The maximum and
minimum temperatures during the winter vary from 25.8oc to 12.1oc.
During summer, the maximum and minimum mean temperatures vary from 34.00c
to 25.60c. The dry winter season starts from November and continues
up to the end of February. Summer comes from middle of March and continues up
to mid of June. The rainfall generally heavy during July to August. The average
annual rainfall recorded from 2001 to 2006 was 1700 mm. The level of humidity
is around 75% in January and around 89% in July.
3.4 Preparation
of questionnaire
The
questionnaire was designed to obtain relevant information covering demographic
and socio-economic attributes of the beneficiaries. The questionnaire was
pre-tested with the limited respondents. On the basis of the pre-tested
questionnaire, necessary suggestions, modifications, addition and alteration
were made to improve the validity and applicability of the questionnaire .The
interview schedule is presented in Appendix 1
3.5 Sampling
technique
Considering the limitation regarding
time and money, a simple random sampling technique was followed. A total of 81
groups are involved in stripe plantation of Social Forestry programme at
Dhamrai ADC. Total length of roadside plantation was 98 km, while 18 km has
been harvested. From 81 groups, 17 groups had harvested their plantation. Out
of harvested 17 groups 10 groups (5 male and 5 female) were randomly selected
for data collection. In addition, five members i.e. president, secretary,
treasurer, caretaker and one ordinary member from each group were selected as
respondents for interview. A total of 50 respondents were selected from 10
groups (5 from each group) those who already got share money from Roadside
Social Forestry Programme. A structured questionnaire was used to collect
relevant information from the selected respondents.
3.6 Method of data collection
Considering the importance of data
collection as the key factors to the survey and the success of the study,
direct interview method was followed to collect the data through personal
interview with the respondents. The researcher himself collected the necessary
information during the study period through questionnaire. Before interviewing
the respondents, a brief introduction of the aims and objectives of the study
were explained to each respondent. When they were assured that the study was
purely academic and had no adverse effect on them, then they provided their
full co-operation to the researcher. After completion of each interview, the
schedule was checked and verified to be sure that the answers were correct. In
order to minimize error, data were collected in the local units. The local
units were converted to the standard units later on. The study was conducted
during May to June 2007.
Secondary data and other related
information were collected from different sources like PROSHIKA field office,
Head office, various literature and study report etc.
3.7 Processing
and tabulation of data
After collection of data, the first
step was to look over the data of each and every interview schedule whether
every question was replied properly or not. All the collected data were
summarized, scrutinized, coded and recorded in Statistical Package for Social
Science (SPSS), computer software. Finally relevant tables, graphs, figures etc
were prepared according to the objectives of the study and nature of the data.
3.8 Comparative measurement of the species planted
Height, girth and volume of the
individual species were collected from the office document of Proshika. The
respondents also furnished information about the pruning and dried materials
collected during the study.
3.9 Estimation of income
Income of each
respondent from agricultural crops, share money from final sale was recorded in
taka, and then sum up of all the individuals for estimating total income from
Roadside Social Forestry Programme (RSFP)
3.10 Estimation of change in property Assets of each respondent were compared through recording
assets before (15 year ago) their involvement to Roadside Social Forestry
Programme (RSFP) and after getting share money from final sale of outputs.
3.11 Estimation of family expenditure
For estimation
of family expenditure, four levels of satisfaction (very satisfied, satisfied,
moderately satisfied and not satisfied) were used before their engagement and
after getting share money from Road Side Social Forestry Programme on six
sectors of expenditure i.e., food, cloth, education, treatment, entertainment
and social festival.
3.12 Estimation of social changes
For estimation
of the social changes, the relevant information were recorded for each
respondents before their involvement to Roadside Social Forestry Programme and
after getting share money from Roadside Social Forestry Programme.
These were sources
of drinking water, kind of latrine use, number of schooling children, supply of
wood in local market and establishment of wood based cottage industries.
3.13 Estimation of changes in attitude
For estimation
of changes in attitude, three parameters (increased, no change and decreased),
were used to estimate the following activities.
i.
Illegal felling
ii.
Encroachment
iii.
Change of forest coverage
IV. Women participation in development activities
V. Women participation in decision making
3.14 Estimation of respondent’s opinion
towards other development
To estimate the respondents opinions on
other changes or development due to involvement of Roadside Social Forestry
Programme were recorded through scoring that ranged from 1 to 5, where 1
indicated strongly disagreed, 2 indicated disagreed, 3 indicated no response, 4
indicated agreed and 5 indicated strongly agreed. The score of respondent’s
opinion were classified into the following five categories
Category
Highly
Unfavourable Unfavourable
Score <1.5
1.5-2.49
Neutral 2.5-3.49
Favourable 3.5-4.49
Highly
favourable >4.5
3.15 Limitation of the study
The researcher faced the following
problems during data collection
i.
The respondents did not keep records of their activities,
so the researcher had to depend on the memory of the respondents.
ii.
Most of the beneficiaries were illiterate or had primary
level of education. So, they were suspicious about the research.
iii.
In the first rotation, the beneficiaries were suspicious
about getting their benefit, so, they were not properly attentive in most of
the cases.
iv.
Moreover, when they were asked some questions like degree
or magnitude of any specific matter or issue, may be answer only what they knew
of thought.
v.
.The study was confined to only one upazila i.e. Dhamrai
upazila of Dhaka district.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Data were collected from 50
beneficiaries of Roadside Social Forestry Programme (RSFP) of Proshika at
Dhamrai ADC (Area Development center) under Dhaka district. Then the data were
compiled, tabulated and analyzed in line with the objectives. The findings have
been discussed under the following heads
1. Socio-economic characteristics of the
beneficiaries.
2. The intervention used in implementing the
Road side
Social Forestry Programme (RSFP).
3. Growth performance of the species planted
in the Roadside Social Forestry Programme (RSFP).
4. Socio-economic impact on the
beneficiaries.
5. Constraint faced by the beneficiaries
during
implementation of the Roadside Social Forestry Programme
(RSFP).
4.1 Socio-economic Characteristics of the
Respondents
4.1.1 Age level of
the respondents
Age level of the respondents ranged from 20 to
75 years, having a mean age of 42.72 years. On the basis of age, the
respondents were categorized into 3 groups, as young (20-35 years), middle
(36-50 years) and old aged (51 years and above). Age distribution of the
respondents shown in (Table 1) revealed that the highest proportion (70
percent) of the respondents belonged to the middle aged group. Whereas, 22 and
8 percent of the respondents belonged to the young and old aged groups,
respectively.
Table 1. Distribution
of the respondents according to age
|
Age level |
Respondent |
||
|
Number |
Percent |
Mean Age(Yrs) |
|
|
Young ( 20-35) |
11 |
22.0 |
42.72 |
|
Middle aged |
35 |
70.0 |
|
|
Old aged (51 |
4 |
8.0 |
|
|
Total |
50 |
100.0 |
|
Mean age =42.72,
SD=7.53
4.1.2
Level of
education
It is the
educational attainment acquired by a respondent in years. A score of one was
given for every year of schooling. A score of zero was assigned for no
schooling. The level of education of the respondents has been categorized into
four groups, i.e. illiterate (no schooling), primary level (I-V), secondary
level (VI-X) and higher secondary and above. Data presented in (Table 2)
revealed that about half of the respondents (48 percent) had no schooling
whereas, 16 and 36 percent of the respondents had primary (I-V) and secondary
(VI-X) level education. However, in the group of higher secondary and above, no
respondent was found.
Table 2
Distribution of the respondents according to their educational level
|
Level of |
Respondent |
|
|
Number |
Percent |
|
|
Illiterate |
24 |
48.0 |
|
Primary level |
8 |
16.0 |
|
Secondary |
18 |
36.0 |
|
Higher |
0 |
0 |
|
Total |
50 |
100.0 |
4.1.3 Gender
participation
4.1.2.1 Gender participation in surveyed group
Total number of
the groups that have been surveyed at Dhamrai ADC was 10, among them 5 were
male groups and 5 were female groups.
Table 3 Percentage of the female and male
beneficiary groups
|
Category |
Number of group |
Percent |
|
Female group |
5 |
50 |
|
Male group |
5 |
50 |
|
Total |
10 |
100 |
4.1.2.2 Gender equity in different groups
Female: In the study area, 5 female groups were surveyed where number of
member in different groups varied from 14 – 20; and the average number of the
members of those groups found 17.
Male: In the study area, 5 male
groups were surveyed where number of member in different groups varied from 16
– 28; and the average number of the members of those groups were 21.
Table 4 Number of the members in different
female and male groups of Roadside
Social Forestry Programme of Proshika at Dhamrai
|
Name of the |
Number of members |
Average number |
|
|
A) Famale group |
|||
|
Nannar |
18 |
17 |
|
|
Rouha Naree |
20 |
||
|
Gangutia |
14 |
||
|
Rouha |
20 |
||
|
Gangutia Naree |
14 |
||
|
B) Male Group |
|||
|
Lalitnagar |
28 |
21 |
|
|
Nannar |
22 |
||
|
Shuapur Sramik |
20 |
||
|
Raghunathpur |
16 |
||
|
Ullail |
21 |
||
4.1.3 Family size
Family size was
measured on the basis of total number of family members in a family. It ranged
from 2 to 11 with an average of 5.1. The families were categorized into three
groups, i.e. small (family member below five), medium (family member ranged
5-8) and large (family member above 8). Data presented (Table 5) revealed that
the highest proportion of the respondents (64 percent) had small size of
family, whereas, 26 and 10 percent of the respondents had medium and large
family size, respectively.
Table 5. Distribution of the respondents according to
their Family size
|
Family (Number/family) |
Respondent |
||
|
Number |
Percent |
Mean Family Size |
|
|
Small |
32 |
64.0 |
5.12 |
|
Medium |
13 |
26.0 |
|
|
Large |
5 |
10.0 |
|
|
Total |
50 |
100.0 |
|
4.1.4 Farm size
Farm size of the respondents ranged from 00
to 2.04 hectare and the average farm size was 0.47 hectare. Based on the
national standard, farm size of the respondents were classified into 4 groups,
such as landless (<0.02 ha), marginal (0.02-0.19 ha), small (0.20-1.00 ha)
and medium (1.01-3.03 ha), (Anonymous; 2001). Data furnished in the Table 7
showed that half of the respondents (50 percent) had small farm size, whereas,
32, 12 and 6 percent of the respondents had marginal, medium and landless farm
size, respectively.
Table 6. Distribution
of the respondents according to farm size
|
Farm Category |
Respondent |
||
|
Number |
Percent |
Mean Farm size |
|
|
Land less (<0.02) |
3 |
6.0 |
0.47 |
|
Marginal (0.02-0.19) |
16 |
32.0 |
|
|
Small (0.02-1.0) |
25 |
50.0 |
|
|
Medium (1.01-3.03) |
6 |
12.0 |
|
|
Total |
50 |
100.0 |
|
4.1.5 Occupation
Among different
occupation, agriculture was the main occupation (50 percent) of the respondents
in the study area, followed by business (42 percent), service (4 percent) and
other (4 percent) (Table 8).
Table 8. Distribution of the respondents according
to their occupation
|
Occupation |
Respondent |
|
|
Number |
Percent |
|
|
Agriculture |
25 |
50 |
|
Business |
21 |
42 |
|
Service |
2 |
4.0 |
|
Other |
2 |
4.0 |
|
Total |
50 |
100.0 |
4.1.6 Training received by the group members from Proshika
(Table 8) showed
that 76 percent of the respondents received training from Proshika of different
duration, whereas, rest 24 percent did not receive any training. Among the
training received respondents, 32, 18 and 26 percent of them received very
short (less than 4 days), short (4-7 days) and medium (more than 7days) term
training, respectively.
Table 8. Distribution of the respondents according to the
training received
|
Duration of |
Training |
||
|
Number |
Percent |
Average Days |
|
|
Very short |
16 |
32.0 |
8.62 |
|
Short duration |
9 |
18.0 |
|
|
Medium |
13 |
26.0 |
|
|
No training |
12 |
24.0 |
|
|
Total |
50 |
100.0 |
|
4.1.7 Annual income
Annual income of
the respondents at the time of programme implementation ranged from Tk.18000 to
200000 with an average annual income of Tk. 49052. The respondents were
classified into three categories namely low income (<Tk. 40000), medium
income (Tk. 40000-80000) and high income (>80000). The study finding
revealed that 34 percent of the respondent’s annual income was low, whereas, 56
and 10 percent of the respondent’s annual income were medium and high,
respectively (Table 9).
Table 9. Distribution
of the respondents to their annual income
|
Income |
Annual Income of Respondents |
|
|
Number |
Percent |
|
|
Low income |
17 |
34 |
|
Medium income |
28 |
56 |
|
High income |
5 |
10 |
|
Total |
50 |
100 |
4.1.8 Loan received
Among 50
respondents, 96 percent of the respondents got loan from Proshika, remaining 4
percent respondents did not get any loan from Proshika. Loan received from
Proshika ranged from Tk. 2000 to 30,000 with an average of Tk. 7131. On the
otherhand, 100 percent of the respondents repayment their loan in the
stipulated time.
4.2
Intervention
Adopted by the Beneficiary
Beneficiary/respondents
followed required practices of the tree cultivation. Some of the important
practices are discussed below:
4.2.1 Planting Method
Cent percent of
the respondents followed systematic planting method along both side of the
road. They opined that pruning, irrigation, earthen up and refilling were easy
in systematic planting (line sowing) method.
4.2.2 Planting distance
Saplings were
planted according to prescribed direction of Proshika, maintaining distance of
6 feet from one plant to another one.
4.2.3 Source of sapling/ planting material
Proshika
supplied neither saplings nor planting inputs (fertilizer, pesticide, staking
sticks etc). Saplings and planting material collected by the respondents in
cash by own arrangement.
.
4.2.4 Fertilizer application
Respondent
farmers used cowdung and other fertilizers such as urea, TSP and MP in their
plantation. The respondents used all fertilizers except MP, both as basal and
installments. In case of MP, full dose of it was used as basal i.e., before
planting. In case of cowdung, 59 percent of it (1000g) was used as basal dose
and the rest 29 and 12 percent were applied at 4.8 and 7.7 months after plantation,
respectively. In case of urea, only 20g/pit was used as basal dose, while the
rest 100g and 90g of it were used at 4.8 and 7.7 months after plantings,
respectively, as ring method. In case of TSP only 32g/pit was used as basal
dose, and remaining 10g was used 4.4 months after plantings as ring method
(Table 10).
Table 10. Fertilizer application
|
Time of |
Cowdung (g) |
Urea (g) |
TSP (g) |
MP (g) |
|
Basal dose |
1000 |
20 |
32 |
13 |
|
First |
500 |
110 |
10 |
0 |
|
Second |
200 |
90 |
0 |
0 |
Planting time
Tree
species were planted from June to July. Maximum of the respondents (80 percent)
planted saplings in the month of June, whereas, 20 percent of the respondents
planted saplings in the month of July (Table 11).
Table 11. planting time of saplings.
|
Planting time (month) |
Respondent |
|
|
Number |
Percent |
|
|
June |
40 |
80 |
|
July |
10 |
20 |
|
Total |
50 |
100 |
4.2.4 Age of
sapling
Age is an
important factor for survivality and growth of saplings. Age of the supplied
saplings varied from 6 to 12 month, where maximum 90 percent of the saplings
were the age of 12 months, and 10 percent saplings was the age of 6 months.
Table
12. Age of sapling during plantation in
Social Forestry programme of Proshika at Dhamrai
|
Age of sapling |
Respondents opinion regarding age of saplings |
||
|
Number |
Percent |
Mean Age |
|
|
12 |
45 |
90 |
11.3 |
|
5 |
5 |
10 |
|
4.2.5 Pit Size
Almost cent
percent of the respondents used the same pit size and it was (1 feet X 1 feet X
1feet).In this case, respondent farmers strictly followed the instruction given
by the Proshika.
4.2.6 Earthen up
Cent percent of
the respondents did earthen up at the base of the sapling. They did this
operation at the early stage of the plantation and continued up to three years.
About half of the respondents (40 percent) did this operation once during the
establishment stage of the saplings and about 30 percent each of the
respondents did this operation thrice and twice during that time. (Table 13).
Table 13. Respondent’s opinion regarding earthen up
around the saplings
|
Earthen up (frequency) |
Respondents opinion regarding earthen up |
|
|
Number of respondents |
Percent |
|
|
Once |
20 |
40 |
|
Twice |
15 |
30 |
|
Thrice |
15 |
30 |
|
Total |
50 |
100 |
4.2.7 Irrigation
Though saplings
were planted in the rainy season, the respondents irrigated saplings and also
the associated crops, during the dry season upto 6 months of planting regular
(3 days/week) for ensuring good survival and growth.
4.2.8 Crop cultivation
Growing of
agricultural crops during the first few years of the tree plantation is a
common practice in agroforestry system. In the study area, it was found that 40
percent of the respondent cultivated different agricultural crops upto three
years, while, 60 percent of the respondents did not cultivate any agricultural
crops in association with trees. Among the cultivated crop species, arhar was
the most common one. They were also reported to cultivate mashkalai and
dhaincha in limited scale (Table 14).
Table 14. Crop
species grown in association with the tree species under Social Forestry Programme at Dhamrai.
|
Crop grown |
Respondents opinion |
|
|
Number |
Percent |
|
|
No crop |
30 |
60 |
|
Crop Arhar Black gram Arhar, dhaincha and black gram |
10 5 5 |
20 10 10 |
|
Total |
50 |
100 |
4.2.9 Duration of crop cultivation
Total period of
agricultural crop cultivated in association with trees in the study areas
ranged from 1 to 3 years. Among the farmers who cultivated crop in association
with trees, 10 percent cultivated agricultural crop up to 3 years, whereas, 10
and 40 percent respondents cultivated agricultural crop upto 2 and 1 years of
the plantation establishment, respectively (Table 15).
Table 15.Duration
of growing agricultural crop in association with trees under
Roadside Social Forestry Programmre of Proshika
|
Duration of crop cultivation (year) |
Respondent |
|
|
Number |
Percent |
|
|
1 year |
20 |
40 |
|
2 year |
5 |
10 |
|
3 year |
5 |
10 |
4.2.10 Plant protection
Majority of the respondents were not
(90%) found to adopt any plant protection measure. However, few respondents
(10%) used Furadan and extract of neem tree leaves for protecting tree species
from pest attack.
Table 16 Use of plant protection in Roadside Social
Forestry Programme at Dhamrai
|
Use of Pesticide |
Respondent |
|
|
Number |
Percent |
|
|
No use of |
40 |
80 |
|
Use of |
10 |
20 |
|
Total |
50 |
100 |
4.2.11 Pruning, thinning and dry leaf collection
Pruning is an operation to remove diseased,
broken and excess branches from the tree and to get intermediate products from
tree plantation. All the respondents did this operation for 2 to 3 times in
whole period of tree cultivation (0 -15 years), while maximum (70 percent) of
the respondents pruned for 2 times, and 30 percent of respondents pruned for 3
times (Table 17A). Each participating farmer received maximum and minimum
amounts of pruned material were 1850 kg and 296 kg, respectively, and the
average amount was 1176.6 kg per participant. Regarding uses of pruned
material, 63 percent of the pruned material were sold in the market and other 37
percent were used for own purposes.
However, none of the respondents was found to use thinning operation.
Regarding dry leaf collection, majority of the respondents (70 percent) did not
collect dry leaves and about (30 percent) of the respondents’ collected dry
leaves. Maximum of the collected dry
leaves were used for their own purpose.
Table 18A. Pruning time in Roadside Social Forestry
programme of Proshika
at Dhamrai
|
Pruning frequency |
Respondent |
|
|
Number |
Percent |
|
|
1 2 3 |
0 35 15 |
0 70 30 |
|
Total |
50 |
100 |
Table 18B. Pruned material collected and utilized in the
Roadside Social Forestry
Programme of Proshika at Dhamrai
|
Operation |
Amount per participant (kg) |
Amount utilization (%) |
|||
|
Mean |
Mean |
Mean |
Sale |
Own use |
|
|
Amount of |
1850 |
296 |
1176.6 |
63 |
37 |
|
Amount of dry |
24 |
20 |
22.5 |
10 |
90 |
4.3
Growth
Performance of the Tree Species
4.3.1 Species Planted
Six selected
tree species were planted under Roadside Social Forestry Programme at the study
sites. Among the planted species, Mahagony was found in cent percent of the
planting site, other frequently observed species were Sissoo (60 percent),
Akashmoni (40 percent), Raintree (30 percent), Georaneem (10 percent) and Sil
koroi (10 percent) (Table 19).
Table 19.
Tree species planted by the respondent farmer
|
Planted tree species |
Respondent |
||
|
English/local name |
Scientific name |
Number |
percent |
|
Mahogoni |
Swietenia mahagoni |
50 |
100 |
|
Sissoo |
Dalbergia sissoo |
30 |
60 |
|
Akashmoni |
Acacia auriculiformis |
20 |
40 |
|
Raintree |
Samanea saman |
15 |
30 |
|
Goraneem |
Melia azedarach |
5 |
10 |
|
Sil koroi |
Albizia procera |
5 |
10 |
4.3.2 Total tree species planted
In 7km roadside plantation, 6900 tree species
were planted (Table 20A). Among the different type of species, maximum (87.7
percent) species was Mahagony followed by Raintree (5 percent), Sissoo (4
percent), Akashmoni (2.6 percent), respectively. Regarding species choice by
the respondents, maximum beneficiary (96 percent) preferred Mahagony, because of its high market value, excellent
wood quality, low branching in nature i.e., less shading affect to adjacent
crops. Regarding other species, 36 percent respondents opined that Raintree
bears low wood quality, high branching, which affect roadside crop
production; 40 percent respondents
opined that though wood quality of sissoo excellent but due to pest attack and
breaking of branches by strong wind, it was not
suitable in the study area (Table 20B).
Table 20A. Number
of total tree species planted in 7 km Roadside Social
Forestry Programme of Proshika at Dhamrai
|
Spices |
Number species planted in 7 km |
Percent |
|
Mahagony |
6050 |
87.7 |
|
Sisoo |
330 |
5 |
|
Akashmoni |
290 |
4 |
|
Raintree |
180 |
2.6 |
|
Goraneem |
20 |
.3 |
|
Silkori |
30 |
.4 |
|
Total |
6900 |
100.0 |
Table 20B.
Distribution of respondents on their preference/choice in
Species selection
|
Name of species |
Respondent |
Reasons for choice |
|
|
Number |
percent |
||
|
Mahagony
Akashmoni
Raintree
Sissoo
|
48
47
18
20
|
96
94
36
40
|
High market
High market
Low market Good wood |
4.3.2
Survivality of sapling
Survivality of
saplings were counted at the age of 1 to 14 years (from the age of one year to
the time of final felling/harvesting). After one year, survivality was 79
percent, and similarly at the time of final felling (<14 years) survivality
was 52 percent (Table 21).
Table 21. Survivality of planted sapling in Roadside
Social Forestry Programme of Proshika at Dhamrai
|
Saplings/trees counted Over time |
Species survived |
||
|
Species (number/km) |
Survivality (percent) |
Mortality (Percent) |
|
|
Sapling at |
986 |
100 |
|
|
Sapling after one year |
780 |
79 |
21 |
|
Tree at final felling |
512 |
52 |
48 |
4.3.3 Growth performance of the planted species
Average volume of log obtained from the
planted species showed that Raintree gave the highest volume of log (8.90 cft),
followed by Sissoo (6.86 cft), Akashmoni (5.48 cft), whereas, the lowest volume
was observed in case of Mahagony (2.39 cft). Similarly, the fuel/fire wood
obtained from the planted species showed that Raintree gave the highest amount
(365.60 kg), followed by Goraneem (243.75 kg), Akashmony (195.75 kg), whereas,
the lowest amount (88.5 kg) was observed in case of Mahagony. However, 96 and
94 percent of the respondents preferred Mahagony and Akashmoni respectively,
because of their high market value, excellent wood quality and low spreading
branch. Farmer’s opinion towards fast growing Raintree and Goraneem were not
positive because of low market value, high spreading branch which affect
adjacent crop production (Table 22).
Table 22. Growth performance of planted trees in terms
of height (bole
height), girth and volume
|
Name of |
Growth |
|||
|
Average bole height (ft) |
Average girth |
Average volume |
Average |
|
|
Mahagony |
6 |
30.2 |
2.39 |
88.50 |
|
Sissoo |
10 |
37.83 |
6.86 |
154.50 |
|
Akashmoni |
10.25 |
35.5 |
5.48 |
195.75 |
|
Raintree |
7.75 |
50.75 |
8.90 |
365.60 |
|
Goraneem |
9 |
35 |
4.79 |
243.75 |
|
Silkori |
6 |
34 |
2.94 |
225 |
4.4
Socio-economic
impacts on the beneficiary
4.4.1 Economic
impact
4.4.1.1 Income from Roadside Social Forestry Programme
Income of respondents from Roadside
Social Forestry Programme was from two different sources, such as income from
tree products and agricultural crops. Data presented in (Table 23) revealed
that average income of each beneficiary from tree products and agricultural
crops were Tk.13868 and 120, respectively.
Table 23. Income
from Roadside Social Forestry Plantation of Proshika at Dhamrai
|
Income source |
Income (Tk.) |
||
|
Maximum |
Minimum |
Mean |
|
|
Tree products |
19550 |
6520 |
13868 |
|
Agricultural |
500 |
0 |
120 |
|
Total |
20050 |
6520 |
13988 |
4.4.1.2 Change of annual income over time
Average annual income of the respondents
before involvement in the Roadside Social Forestry Programme was Tk. 49052
(ranged from Tk. 18000 to 200000) and after getting share money it increased to
Tk. 69172 (ranged from Tk. 30000 to 300000). The values mentioned above
indicated that annual income of the respondents increased by 41 percent.
Table 24. Change
in annual income of the beneficiary from Roadside Social Forestry Programme of Proshika at Dhamrai
|
Annual income |
Annual income (Tk/respondent) |
|||
|
Maximum income |
Minimum income |
Average |
Percent |
|
|
Before RSFP |
200000 |
18000 |
49052 |
41 |
|
After RSFP |
300000 |
30000 |
69172 |
|
4.4.1.3 Change in income of
different income groups over time
At the initial stage of Roadside Social
Forestry Programme, the respondents annual income was categorized into 3 groups
such as low income (Tk.<40000), medium income (Tk. 40000 to 80000) and high
income (>Tk. 80000). After getting benefit from Roadside Social Forestry
Programme, it showed (Table 4 25) that percent of low income group decreased
from 34 to 6, whereas, percent of medium and high income group increased from
56 to 62 and 10 to 32, respectively. From this analysis, it is clear that
income of respondents was increased due to their involvement in Roadside Social
Forestry Programme, and it could have played an important role for poverty
elevation of the beneficiaries.
Table 25. Change of income of
different groups before and after involvement with Roadside Social Forestry Programme of
Proshika at Dhamrai
|
Income group |
Annual income of respondents (Tk.) |
|||
|
Before RSFP |
After RSFP |
|||
|
Number |
Percent |
Number |
Percent |
|
|
Low income |
17 |
34 |
3 |
6 |
|
Medium |
28 |
56 |
31 |
62 |
|
High income |
5 |
10 |
16 |
32 |
|
Total |
50 |
100 |
50 |
100 |
4.4.1.4 Annual saving
Before involvement in Roadside Social Forestry Programme (1991-1993),
maximum annual deposit of the respondents was Tk. 50000, and after completion
of RSFP, annual maximum deposit increased to 70000, while average annual
deposit increased from Tk.5700 to Tk.10000 (Table 26). The finding is a
positive sign of poverty elevation of the beneficiaries.
Table 26. Change in annual saving of the
beneficiary from Roadside Social
Forestry Programme of Proshika at Dhamrai
|
Annual saving |
Annual saving (Tk/respondent) |
||
|
Maximum income |
Minimum income |
Average |
|
|
Before RSFP |
50000 |
0 |
5700 |
|
After RSFP |
70000 |
1000 |
10000 |
4.4.2 Social
change
4.4.2.1 Asset
Eleven different kinds of assets were
considered for assessment in change in respondent’s assets. Data presented in
the Table 27 indicated that assets of the respondents increased after getting
benefits from Roadside Social Forestry Programme. Among different assets,
average number of cow and goat increased from 1.09 to 2.11 and 2.29 to 4.57
respectively. Average number of furniture and house increased very remarkably,
while tube well, latrine, school going children and gold increased
considerably.
Table 27. Changes
in asset of the respondents involved in Roadside
Social Forestry
Progrmme of Proshika at Dhamrai.
|
Asset (Number) |
Before RSFP |
After RSFP |
||||
|
Min. |
Max. |
Mean |
Min. |
Max. |
Mean |
|
|
House |
1 |
3 |
1.42 |
1 |
4 |
1.92 |
|
Cow |
0 |
4 |
1.09 |
1 |
6 |
2.11 |
|
Goat |
0 |
5 |
2.29 |
2 |
10 |
4.57 |
|
Tube well |
0 |
1 |
0.50 |
0 |
1 |
0.98 |
|
Latrine |
0 |
1 |
0.34 |
1 |
1 |
1.00 |
|
Bicycle |
0 |
2 |
0.10 |
0 |
2 |
0.16 |
|
Radio |
0 |
1 |
0.20 |
0 |
1 |
0.22 |
|
Television |
0 |
1 |
0.20 |
0 |
1 |
0.40 |
|
School going children |
0 |
3 |
1.50 |
0 |
5 |
1.80 |
|
Furniture:Chair, Table khat, Chauki etc |
5 |
17 |
7.89 |
5 |
32 |
11.42 |
|
Gold (Tola) |
0 |
4 |
0.80 |
1 |
7 |
1.52 |
4.4.2.2 Family expenditure
Level of family expenditure was categorized
into four classes such as very satisfied, satisfied, less satisfied and not
satisfied in respect of expenditure for food, cloth, education, treatment,
entertainment and festival before and after involvement of beneficiaries in
Roadside Social Forestry Programme. Data furnished in the Table 28 indicated
that after getting the benefits of Roadside Social Forestry Programme, percent
of respondents expressed “very satisfied” in case of food, cloth education,
treatment, entertainment and festival increased from 3 to 34, 2 to 34, 2 to 15,
0 to 6, 0 to 6, and 0 to 8, respectively. Similarly, percent of respondents of
“satisfied” in case of education, treatment, entertainment and festival
celebration increased from 19 to 35, 7 to 43, 5 to 42 and 4 to 40,
respectively. Percent of respondents expressed “less satisfied” in case of
food, cloth, education, treatment, entertainment and festival decreased from 17
to 0, 20 to 0, 29 to 0, 39 to 1, 33 to 2 and 30 to 2 respectively. Percent of
respondents of “not satisfied” in case of cloth, treatment, entertainment and
festival decreased from 2 to 0, 4 to 0, 12 to 0, and 16 to 0 respectively. From
this analysis, it can be concluded that level of satisfaction of the
respondents about family expenditure increased remarkably.
Table 28 Distribution of respondents according to the
change of family expenditure
|
Level of |
Satisfaction |
|||||||||||
|
Food |
Cloth |
Education |
Treatment |
Entertainment |
Festival |
|||||||
|
BRSFP |
ARSFP |
BRSFP |
ARSFP |
BRSFP |
ARSFP |
BRSFP |
ARSFP |
BRSFP |
ARSFP |
BRSFP |
ARSFP |
|
|
Very satisfied |
6 |
68 |
4 |
68 |
4 |
30 |
0 |
12 |
0 |
12 |
0 |
16 |
|
Satisfied |
60 |
32 |
52 |
32 |
38 |
70 |
14 |
86 |
10 |
84 |
8 |
80 |
|
Less satisfied |
34 |
0 |
40 |
0 |
58 |
0 |
78 |
2 |
66 |
4 |
60 |
4 |
|
Not satisfied |
0 |
0 |
4 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
8 |
0 |
24 |
0 |
32 |
0 |
* BRSFP = Before Roadside Social Forestry
Programme.
** ARSFP = After Roadside Social Forestry
Programme.
4.4.2.3 Supply of wood/fuel wood
Cent percent
respondents opined that wood/fuel wood
supply in the local market increased due to Roadside Social Forestry
activities, and similarly wood based small cottage industries were established
in the study area due to the same reason.
4.4.2.4 Attitude of the respondents
For measurement of changes in attitude of
the respondents in regards to illegal felling, encroachment, forest coverage,
interest in training and women empowerment in decision making, three parameters
i.e., increased, as usual(neutral) and decreased were used. Data furnished in
Table 29 indicated that about hundred percent (98 percent) of the respondents
opined that illegal felling and encroachment in the study area were decreased
considerably. Eighty percent of the respondents also opined that forest areas
were increased as a result of introduction of Social Forestry Programme
whereas, 20 percent of the respondents opined that forest was remained as
usual. Regarding training cent percent of the respondents opined that interest
in training increased. Women participation in development activities and
decision making were also noticeably increased due to implementation of Road
side Social Forestry Programme.
Table 29 Distribution of the respondents according
to change in attitudes
|
Change in |
Respondents |
|||||||
|
Increased |
As usual |
Decreased |
Total |
|||||
|
No. |
Percent |
No. |
Percent |
No. |
Percent |
No. |
Percent |
|
|
Illegal |
1 |
2 |
0 |
0 |
49 |
98 |
50 |
100 |
|
Encroachment |
1 |
2 |
0 |
0 |
49 |
98 |
50 |
100 |
|
Forest area |
40 |
80 |
10 |
20 |
0 |
0 |
50 |
100 |
|
Interest in |
50 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
50 |
100 |
|
Women in |
50 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
50 |
100 |
|
Women in decision making |
50 |
100 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
50 |
100 |
4.4.2.5 Satisfaction level of the respondents
Satisfaction
level of the respondents about the activities of proshika personals were
grouped as very satisfied, satisfied, less satisfied and not satisfied. Most of
the respondents (74 percent) were expressed very satisfaction with the Proshika
activities, 20 percent respondents expressed as simply satisfied with the proshika
activities, however, none of the respondents was found unsatisfied about the
activities of Proshika Roadside Social Forestry Programme.
Table 30. Distribution of the respondents according
to satisfaction level on
Proshika activities
|
Level of satisfaction |
Respondents opinion on Proshika activities |
|
|
Number |
percent |
|
|
Very satisfied |
37 |
74 |
|
Satisfied |
10 |
20 |
|
Less satisfied |
3 |
6 |
|
Not satisfied |
0 |
0 |
4.4.2.6 Contact of Proshika worker with the
beneficiary
The respondents among the beneficiaries were classified into 4
categories on the basis of their contact with Proshika workers. Data presented
in Table 31 indicated that the highest proportion (60 percent) of the
respondents of the study area had regular contact (>3 days/week) with
Proshika workers followed by 40 percent of the respondents that had frequent
(6-7 days/month) contact with Proshika worker.
Table 31 Frequency
of contact with proshika worker with the beneficiary
|
Frequency of contact |
Contact with respondent |
|
|
Number |
Percent |
|
|
Regular (>3 |
30 |
60 |
|
Frequent (6-7 |
20 |
40 |
|
Irregular (1-3 |
0 |
0 |
|
Rare |
0 |
0 |
4.4.2.7 Respondents opinion towards other
development
To assess the impact of Roadside Social Forestry Programme towards other
development of the beneficiaries were recorded with some statements which
presented in the (Table 32). The respondent’s opinion/statement towards
Roadside Social Forestry Programme ranged from 1 to 5: where 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5
meant for strongly disagreed, no response, agreed and strongly agreed,
respectively. Their opinions were analyzed and further classified into five
categories: (1) highly favourable (<4.49), (2) favourable (3.45-4.49), (3)
neutral (2.5-3.49), (4) unfavourable (1.5-2.49), and (5) highly unfavourable (<1.5).
The mean rating of respondent’s opinion towards Roadside Social Forestry
programme ranged from 3.42-4.94. Out of 15 statements, one was neutral, 7
statements were favourable and other 6 statements were highly favourable
towards Roadside Social Forestry programme. However, no unfavourable statement
was recorded. These findings indicated that respondents attitudes towards
Roadside Social Forestry programme were
very positive in the study area.
Table 32
Distribution of respondent’s attitude towards RSFP
|
Statement |
Score(mean) |
Ranks |
|
Proshika |
4.94 |
Highly |
|
Close |
4.94 |
Highly |
|
Increased |
4.94 |
Hihgly Favourable |
|
Increased |
4.84 |
Highly Favourable |
|
Increased wood |
4.94 |
Highly Favourable |
|
Happy as a |
4.92 |
Highly |
|
Effective |
3.92 |
Favourable |
|
Improved |
4.20 |
Favourable |
|
Improve |
4.76 |
Favourable |
|
Increased |
3.80 |
Favourable |
|
Control |
3.87 |
Favourable |
|
Increased |
3.50 |
Favourable |
|
Improved house |
3.92 |
Favourable |
|
Improved |
4.42 |
Favourable |
|
Increased |
3.42 |
Neutral |
4.4.2.8 Social development of the respondents
Data presented in the Table 33 revealed that social development of the
respondents was in a positive direction after involvement with Roadside Social
Forestry Programme of Proshika. Before involvement with the Roadside Social
Forestry Programme, 52 and 48 percent of the respondent’s source of drinking
water were from ‘kua’ and ‘tube well’ respectively. After getting shared money
(benefit) from Roadside Social Forestry Programme, cent percent of the
respondent’s source of drinking water was from tube well. Similarly, before
involvement in Roadside Social Forestry Programme, 68 percent respondent used
kacha latrine, and 32 percent only used pucca latrine. After getting shared
money from Roadside Social Forestry Programme, cent percent respondent used
pucca latrine. For achieving 100 percent safe drinking water and good
sanitation system among the respondent farmer were not only due to Roadside
Social Forestry Programme, but also due to government policy, promotional
activities of upazila parisad, union parisad and local NGOs.
Table 33 Distribution of the respondents in using
source of drinking water and sanitary latrine
|
Item |
Respondent |
||||
|
BRSFP |
ARSFP |
||||
|
Number |
Percent |
Number |
Percent |
||
|
Source of |
Kua |
26 |
52 |
0 |
0 |
|
Tube well |
24 |
48 |
50 |
100 |
|
|
Latrine used |
Kacha |
34 |
68 |
0 |
0 |
|
Pucca Latrine |
16 |
32 |
50 |
100 |
|
4.5
Problems and
suggestion
4.5.1 Problems
Problems faced by the beneficiaries
during implementation Roadside Social Forestry Programme were also recorded
during the study. The findings of the study indicated that Roadside Social
Forestry Programme had become a profitable enterprise among the beneficiaries
but simultaneously, the beneficiaries had faced different problems during
implementation of the programme. The major problems faced by the beneficiaries
during implementation of Roadside Social Forestry Programme were conflicts
between beneficiaries and adjacent land owners (42 percent) followed by illegal
interference of middlemen during final harvest (38 percent), lack of quality
saplings (30 percent), damage of seedlings by cattle and goat (28 percent),
lack of coordination among GO, NGO and other development stakeholders (26
percent), lack of loan supply (16 percent) and so on. (Table 34).
Table-34:Problems
faced by the respondents during implementation of Roadside Social
Forestry Programme of Proshika at Dhamrai
|
Constraint |
Respondents |
||
|
Number |
Percent |
Rank |
|
|
Conflict |
21 |
42 |
1st |
|
Illegal |
19 |
38 |
2nd |
|
Lack of |
15 |
30 |
3rd |
|
Damage of |
14 |
28 |
4th |
|
Lack of |
13 |
26 |
5th |
|
Lack of loan |
8 |
16 |
6th |
|
Illegal |
7 |
14 |
7th |
|
Lack of |
5 |
10 |
8th |
|
Lack of proper |
3 |
6 |
9th |
4.5.2 Suggestion for improvement of Roadside Social
Forestry Programme
Respondent
farmers gave some suggestion for improvement of current Roadside Social
Forestry activities. The main suggestions were strengthening coordination among
the government, non government organization and other development stakeholders
(76 percent), combat interference from middlemen during final harvest (42
percent), inclusion of adjacent land owner
as group member (40 percent), timely supply of quality saplings (36
percent), supply of small credit (32 percent) and so on. (Table 35)
Table 35. Suggestion made by the beneficiaries for improvement of Social Forestry Programme
|
Suggestion |
Respondents opinion |
||
|
Number |
Percent |
Rank |
|
|
Coordination |
38 |
76 |
1st |
|
Combat |
21 |
42 |
2nd |
|
Inclusion of |
20 |
40 |
3rd |
|
Timely supply |
18 |
36 |
4th |
|
Supply of |
16 |
32 |
5th |
|
Arrangement of |
12 |
24 |
6th |
|
Refilling in |
09 |
18 |
7th |
|
Cooperation |
8 |
16 |
8th |
|
Use of balance |
4 |
8 |
9th |
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This chapter
briefly summarized the major activities of the study. Some conclusions and
recommendations were also drawn on the basis of the findings.
5.1
Summary
The study was
conducted at Dhamrai Area Development Center (ADC) of Proshika in Dhaka
district under Roadside Social Forestry Programme covering 10 roads (7 km) from
3 unions. In this study, attempts have been made to document the intervention
used by the beneficiaries, to measure the growth performance of the planted
species, to asses the socio-economic development of the beneficiaries and to identify
the problems faced by the beneficiaries during implementation of the Roadside
Social Forestry Programme.
To achieve the above objectives of the
study, a simple random sampling technique was adopted to collect the necessary
information through a pre-tested structured questionnaire. A sample of 50
beneficiaries was selected from 10 groups (5 respondents from each group). The
necessary information were collected during May to June 2007 through direct
interviewing the selected respondents. Collected data were compiled, coded,
tabulated for processing and analyzed in accordance with the objectives of the
study. The SPSS computer package programme was used to analyze the data.
Descriptive statistics like range, number, percent and average were calculated
in explaining the descriptive data. The study encompassed the following issue.
The socio-economic
characteristics of the respondents revealed that 70 percent of the middle aged
group people (36-50 years) involved in Roadside Social Forestry Programme while
48 percent respondents had no formal education (illiterate). Sixty four percent
of the respondents had small family (below 5 member/family) and 50 percent
respondents had small farm size (0.20-1.0 ha/family). Agriculture was the main
occupation of 50 percent of the respondents, while 34 percent of the
respondents had low annual income (<Tk.40000). Most of the respondents (90
percent) were engaged with Roadside Social Forestry Programme by the
motivational work of Proshika, 76 percent of the respondents received training
from Proshika of different duration, 96 percent of the respondents got loan
from Proshika.
Cent percent of the respondent
followed systematic planting method along both sides of the road. Saplings were
planted according to prescribed direction of Proshika maintaining 6 feet plant
to plant distance. Cent percent of the required saplings and other planting
materials collected by the respondents in cash by their own arrangement. Saplings of 11.3 months old (varied from 6-12
month) were planted during June to July. During dry season regular irrigation
was applied upto 6 months of planting for ensuring good survival and growth. Fourty
percent of the respondents cultivated agricultural crops in association with
trees at initial stage (1-3 years)
of the
plantation establishment. Ten percent of the respondents applied pesticide for
protection of tree pest in the plantation site but none of them applied any
pesticide for protection of agricultural crops. All the respondents did pruning
for 2 to 3 times in whole period of tree cultivation (0-15 years), while
maximum (70 percent) of the respondent pruned for 2 times and 30 percent of the
respondents pruned for 3 times.
Six selected tree species were planted
under Roadside Social Forestry Programme in the study sites. Among the planted
species, Mahagony was found in cent percent of the planting site. In 7 km
roadside plantation, 6900 tree species were planted. Among different types of
species, maximum (47.7 percent) species was Mahagony. Survivality of planted
species after one year and at the time of final felling were 79 and 52 percent,
respectively. Raintree gave the highest volume of log (8.90 cft), and fuel/fire
wood (365.60 kg), whereas, the lowest volume of log and fuel/fire wood were
observed in case of Mahogany i.e., 2.39 cft and 88.50 kg, respectively.
However, 96 and 94 percent of the respondents preferred Mahagony and Akashmony,
respectively, because of their high market value, excellent wood quality and
low spreading branch. Farmer’s opinion towards fast growing Raintree and
Goraneem were not positive because of low market value, high branch spreading
that affects adjacent crop production. After completion a rotation (0-15 years),
trees were sold by open tender under direct supervision of Proshika with
consent of the beneficiaries, and due share (money) was distributed among the
beneficiaries as per agreement.
Average
income from agricultural crops was Tk 120. Income from tree product was Tk.
13988. Ninety eight percent of the respondents opined that illegal felling and
encroachment decreased due to efforts of Social Forestry Programme, while cent
percent of them opined that forest cover increased in the study area due to
implementation of Roadside Social Forestry Programme.
Findings of the study indicated that
Roadside Social Forestry Programme is a profitable enterprise among the
beneficiaries but some problems were encountered during implementation of
Social Forestry Programme. Conflicts between beneficiaries and adjacent
landowners (42 percent) were the most important problem followed by illegal
interference of middlemen during final harvest (38 percent), lack of quality
saplings (30 percent) and damage of saplings by cattle and goat (28 percent).
Strengthening coordination among the GO, NGO and other development stakeholders
(76 percent), combat interference from middlemen during final harvest
(42percent), inclusion of adjacent land owners as group member (40 percent),
timely supply of quality saplings (36 percent) were major suggestion made by
the respondents for sustainable development of Roadside Social Forestry
Programme.
5.2
Conclusion
The following
conclusions can be drawn based on the findings of the study.
5.2.1 Socio-economic
parameter
The socio-economic parameters of the
study revealed that 70 percent of the middle aged group people (36-50 years)
were involved in Roadside Social Forestry Programme and 48 percent of the
respondents had no formal education (illiterate), 64 percent of the respondents
had small family (below 5 member/family) and 50 percent of the respondents had
small farm size (0.02-1.0 ha/family). Agriculture was the main occupation of 50
percent of the respondent and 34 percent of the respondents had low annual
income (<Tk. 40000).
5.2.2 Intervention adopted by the beneficiary
The respondent’s
collected necessary planting materials including saplings, fertilizer and
pesticide in cash by own management. Cent percent of the respondents followed
systematic planting method (line sowing). Saplings were planted according to the
prescribed direction of Proshika, maintaining a distance of 6 feet. Saplings of
six different species were planted in the month of June to July. Age of the
saplings during plantation varied from 6-12 months. Forty percent of the
respondents cultivated agricultural crops in association with trees at initial
stage (1-3 years) of plantation establishment. Limited respondents (10 percent)
applied pesticide for protection of tree pest in the plantation site but none
of them applied any pesticide for protection of agricultural crops. During the
dry season upto 6 months of planting, regular irrigation was applied for
ensuring good survival and growth.
5.2.3 Growth performance of the planted tree species
Six selected
tree species were planted under Roadside Social Forestry Programme at the study
sites. Among the planted species, Mahagony was found in cent percent of the
planting site. In 7 km roadside plantation, 6900 tree species were planted..
Survivality of planted species after one year and at the time of final felling
were 79 and 52 percent, respectively. Raintree gave the highest volume of log
(8.90 cft), and fuel/fire wood (365.60 kg), whereas, the lowest volume of log
and fuel/fire wood were observed in case of Mahogany i.e., 2.39 cft and 88.50
kg, respectively. However, 96 and 94 percent of the respondents preferred
Mahagony and Akashmony, respectively, because of their high market value,
excellent wood quality and low spreading branch. Farmer’s opinion towards fast
growing Raintree and Goraneem were not positive because of low market value,
high spreading of branch which affects adjacent crop production.
5.2.4 Socio-economic impacts on the beneficiary
Positive impacts
of Roadside Social Forestry Programme were observed among the beneficiaries.
Average income of the respondents from tree products was Tk.13988, and average
income of the respondents increased from Tk. 49052 to Tk. 69172 after getting
share money from final felling. Due to increase of annual income, asset of
respondents changed in positive direction. Forest cover increased, and illegal
felling and encroachment decreased in the study area. Women participation in
development activities and decision-making were also noticeably increased.
Establishment of sawmills and wood based cottage industries were increased in
the surrounding area of Roadside Social Forestry Programme.
5.2.5 Problems faced by the beneficiaries
Conflicts
between beneficiaries and adjacent land owners, illegal interference from
middlemen during final harvest, lack of quality saplings, damaged of saplings
by cattle and goat and lack of coordination among GO, NGO and other development
stakeholders were the major problems faced by the respondents during
implementation of Roadside Social Forestry Programme.
5.2.6 Suggestion made by the respondents
The major
suggestions given by the respondents were the strengthen coordination among the
GO, NGO, and other development stakeholders (76 percent), combat illegal
interference from middlemen during final harvest (42 percent), inclusion of
adjacent landowner as group member (40 percent) and timely supply of quality
saplings (36 percent) were the main suggestion made by the respondents.
5.3
Recommendation
In
respect of the present findings, the following recommendations are suggested.
- Conflict between beneficiaries and non-participating
adjacent land owner has been found in the Roadside Social Forestry
Programme. Therefore, during selection of beneficiaries, inclusion of
adjacent land owners should be taken into consideration if policy permits.
- In the Social Forestry Programme of Proshika, very
few species were planted of which 84 percent were exotic. Emphasis should be
given to include native species especially fruit species for maintaining
the biodiversity of the locality as well as increasing nutritional status
of the beneficiaries.
- Lack of quality planting material is a crucial issue
in the study area like elsewhere of the country. Under this circumstance,
Proshika can take initiative for producing of quality planting materials
and distributing those to the beneficiaries in non-profit basis.
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